History of Sufism
The history of Sufism can be divided into the following
principal periods:
Origins
Sufism originates in the teachings of the Prophet
Muhammad. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (orders) trace
their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet, either via
his cousin and son-in-law Imam
Ali ibn Abi Talib or caliph
Abu Bakr. From their point of view, the esoteric teaching
was given to those who had the capacity to contain the direct
experiential gnosis of God, and then passed on from teacher to
student through the centuries.
Some scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result
of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example,
Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages
of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam.
And
Louis Massignon states: "It is from the Quran, constantly
recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in
its origin and its development."
The Great masters of Sufism
The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly
in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control.
This period was characterised by the practice of an
apprentice (murid)
placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh
or pir).
The Bastami Complex in Bastam,
Semnan Province of
Iran, contains the shrine of Mohammad ibn
Jafar Sadiq, the tomb of
Bayazid, his
monastery, the
Iwan of
ljeit, the tomb of
Mahmud Ghazan, the Congregation Mosque, the
tower of Kashaneh, and the Shahrukhiya
seminary, bath, and
Zurkhaneh, dating from before the
Seljuki era, at the earliest.
Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics
of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of
baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through
progressive stages (maqaam)
and states (haal).
The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values
and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material
prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life.
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian,
Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the
first mystics among the "Taabi'een" in Islam.
Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion
for God.
Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned
himself with fanaa
and baqaa,
the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the
divine, accompanied by clarity concerning wordly phenomena.
Formalization of Philosophies of Sufism
Al Ghazali's treatises, the "Reconstruction of Religious
Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism
originated from the Qur'an making it compatible with mainstream
Islamic thought and theology. It was around 1000
CE that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals,
treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi
thinking and meditations.
Propagation of Sufism
Sufism, during 1200-1500 CE, experienced an era of increased
activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period is
considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of
Sufism. Lodges and
hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students,
but also places for practising Sufis and other mystics to stay
and retreat.
The propagation of Sufism started from its origin in Baghdad,
Iraq, and spread to
Persia,
India,
North Africa and
Muslim Spain. There were tests of conciliation between
Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.), as
well as the beginning of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).
One of the first orders to originate was the Yasawi order,
named after Khwajah
Ahmed Yesevi in modern
Kazakhstan. The
Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named
after
Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" ,
since a number of his disciples became shaykhs. The most
prominent Sufi master of this era is
Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the
Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included
Rumi, founder of the
Mevlevi order in Turkey,
Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and
Moinuddin Chishti in India.
Modern Sufism
This period includes the effects of modern thoughts, science,
and philosophy on Sufism and the advent of Sufism to the
West. Important Sufis of this period include
Hazrat Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha,
Hazrat Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha,
Hazrat Mir Ghotbeddin Mohammad Angha and
Hazrat Jalaleddin Ali Mir Abolfazl Angha from the
Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi order.
Influences
A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from
pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of
mysticism and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives
originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam,
an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam, and the incorporation
of ideas and practices from other mysticisms such as
Gnosticism and
Hinduism into Islam
[1]. The evidence in support of non-Islamic influences in
formation of Sufism includes the existence of similarities
between Sufism and mystic systems outside Islam. There are also
claims regarding
ancient Egyptian roots of Sufism which are not widely
accepted.[2].
Others oppose the idea of extensive non-Islamic influences on
Sufism and believe that these theories are based on
misunderstanding Islam as a harsh and sterile religion,
incapable of developing mysticism.
Basic beliefs
Dervishesthe name given to initiates of Sufi ordersbelieve
that love is a projection of the essence of
God
to the
universe. They believe God desires to recognize beauty by
looking at himself within the dynamics of nature. Divine love is
not restricted to what the term "love of God" implies, it also
includes human loves with a perspective that views everything a
manifestation of God.
The central doctrine of Sufism, sometimes called Wahdat
or Unity, is the understanding of
Tawhid: all phenomena are manifestations of a single
reality, or Wujud (being), or 'al-Haq (Truth, God).
The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and
quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from
every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is
often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of
Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is
false. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all
notions of
duality, therefore the individual
self also), and realize the divine
unity.
Sufis teach in personal groups, believing the interaction of
the master is necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make
extensive use of
parable,
allegory, and
metaphor, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be
reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of
oneself. Although philosophies vary between different Sufi
orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct
personal experience, and as such may be compared to various
forms of
mysticism such as
Zen Buddhism and
Gnosticism.
The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar,
helps describe this line of thought.
- There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for
instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see
the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out
and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned
by God.
A significant part of
Persian literature comes from the Sufis, who created great
books of
poetry (which include for example the
Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the
Conference of the Birds and the
Masnavi), all of which contain teachings of the Sufis.
Sufi concepts
-
Lataif-e-sitta (The Six Subtleties)
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish
Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties), Nafs, Qalb, Ruh,
Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa. These lataif (singular : latifa)
designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, faculties of
sensory perception.
Sufic development involves the awakening of these spiritual
centers of perception that lie dormant in an individual. Each
center is associated with a particular colour and general area
of the body, oft times with a particular prophet, and varies
from Order to Order. The help of a guide is considered necessary
to help activate these centers. After undergoing this process,
the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion."
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi
& Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them,
contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of
the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by
cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a
mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the
receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit
(Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives
(Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr),
and completion of journey with purification of the last two
faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties
and the transformative results from their activation, the basic
Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the
schemata of
kabbalah, but the resemblance to the
tantric
chakra system is misleading, since the Sufi psychology does
not operate with anything equivalent to the esoteric energy
physiology of
Kundalini.
Man gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by
Muraqaba (Sufi Meditation),
Dhikr
(Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche from
negative thoughts, emotions, and actions. Loving God and one's
fellow, irrespective of his race, religion or nationality, and
without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to
ascension according to Sufis.
Sufi cosmology
-
Although there is no consensus with regard to
Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle various threads that led
to the crystallization of more or less coherent cosmological
doctrines. Reading various authoritative texts, one can see that
practitioners of Sufism were not much bothered with
inconsistencies and contradictions that have arisen due to
juxtaposition and superposition of at least three different
cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by
Suhrawardi Maqtul,
Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers
like
Ibn Sina/Avicenna and Sufis like
Ibn al-Arabi, and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric
world. All these doctrines (each one of them claiming to be
impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed,
frequently with confusing results a situation one encounters
in other esoteric doctrines, from Hebrew
Kabbalah and
Gnosticism to
Vajrayana
Buddhism and Trika
Shaivism. The following cosmological plan is usually found
in various Sufi texts:
See also:
Plane (cosmology)
Esoteric cosmology.
Sufi practices
Muraqaba
-
Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the
practice of
meditation. The
Arabic word literally means observe, guard or control one's
thoughts and desires. In some Sufi orders, muraqaba may involve
concentrating one's mind on the
names of God, on a verse of the
Qur'an, or on certain
Arabic letters that have special significance. Muraqaba in
other orders may involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his or
her
murshid, while others (such as the
Azeemia order) imagine certain colors to achieve different
spiritual states.
Dhikr
Dhikr (Zekr) is the remembrance of God commanded in the
Qur'an for all
Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God
according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the
repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More
generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness
of God is considered dhikr.
The
Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies. Each
order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for group
dhikr, the
liturgy of which may include
recitation,
singing,
instrumental music,
dance,
costumes,
incense,
meditation,
ecstasy, and
trance. (Touma 1996, p.162). Dhikr in a group is most often
done on ThursDay and/or SunDay nights as part of the
institutional practice of the orders.
Hadhra
-
Hadhra is a dance associated with
dhikr
practiced primarily in the
Arab world.
Qawwali
Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in
Pakistan and North
India.
As a tradition, Qawwali is known for its secular strains. Some
of its modern-Day masters have included
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the
Sabri Brothers.
Sama
Sama or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to
Sufi
worship practices involving music and dance (see
Sufi whirling). In
Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally
associated with Sufi ritual. See
Qawwali origins and
Origin and History of the Qawwali,
Adam Nayyar,
Lok Virsa Research Centre,
Islamabad, 1988.
Khalwa
Khalwa refers to a form of
retreat, once widespread but now less common.
Orders of Sufism
-
Traditional orders
The traditional Sufi orders emphasize the role of Sufism
within Islam. Therefore the
Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any
Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi
orders are the
Oveyssi,
Shadhili,
Jerrahi,
Qadiri,
Naqshbandi,
Nimatullahi,
Mevlevi,
Chishti and the
Ashrafi. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost
all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were
also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great
Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis
(Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never
distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct
with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia.
For a longer list of Sufi orders see:
Sufi orders
Non-traditional Sufi groups
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional
Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are
Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the
Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism
Reoriented.
Universal Sufism
-
Mainstream Sufism is seen by its scholars and supporters as a
part of traditional Islam. However, there is a major line of
non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as
predating Islam and being a
universal philosophy, that is independent of the
Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet
Muhammad. This view of Sufism has been popular in the
Western world, and the terms yogi and sufi are used
interchangeably. Universal Sufism tends to be opposed by
traditional Sufis, who argue that Sufism has always been
practiced from within an Islamic framework and can never be
separated from it.
Inayat Khan founded
Universal Sufism, and
Idries Shah advocated similar concepts.
There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary
Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism
represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and
His creation.
Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism
Islam traditionally consists of a number of groups. The two
main divisions are the
Sunnis and the
Shia">Shia.
Sunni Islam consists of a number of schools of legal
jurisprudence (called
Madhabs). Sufis do not define Sufism as a madhhab what
distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually
through association with a Sufi order. Belief in Sufism is not
sufficient for being recognized as a Sufi. Classic Sufi tariqas
insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of
Fiqh
and one of the two orthodox schools of
Aqida.
In this sense, traditional practicers of Sufism don't see it as
an exclusive group but just as a form of training necessary to
cultivate spirituality and
Ihsan
in their lives.
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this
way:
- In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies
on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came
to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most
important task was to train the mind in achieving correct
understanding came to be divided into three main schools of
thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us
with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most
Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the
spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as
Sufis
The relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and
Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and
their history.
According to the followers of Sufism, the founders and early
scholars of the schools (madhhabs) had positive attitudes
towards Sufism, for example
Imam Ibn Hambal used to visit the Sufi master
Bishr al Hafi frequently. Later, there were some scholars who considered some
aspects of Sufism rank
heresy as well as those like
Al-Ghazali who defended Sufis as true Muslims. In time, even
the controversial words of
Al-Hallaj came to be accepted by some scholars.
ToDay, many Islamic scholars (though not all) hold Tasawwuf,
in the sense of Sufi doctrines and philosophies, to be the
science of the heart or gnosis (as distinct from other branches
of Islamic knowledge which are
exoteric in nature) and appreciate Sufis for their extensive
contributions to Islamic arts and philosophy. Many Muslims who
are not themselves Sufis are influenced by Sufi teachings.
Controversy and criticism of Sufism
Sufism is a somewhat controversial subject toDay. For
didactic convenience, the perspectives on Sufism as a part of
Islam will be mentioned first and after that, the non Muslim
groups who claim to be Sufi adherents.
Islamic positions on Sufism
Classic position on Sufism
Sufism was traditionally considered the systematisation of
the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the
heart (just as
Fiqh
dealt with the body and
Aqida
dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars
wrote treatises on the subject (eg.
Al-Ghazali's ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam
Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Many of the traditional
scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg.
Al-Azhar) like
Ibn Ata'illah were
Sufi masters. Even toDay, many of the traditional Islamic
universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the
religion of Islam. Many of the famous
Islamic scholars have praised Sufis and their practices. For a
list, please refer
scholars on sufism.
However, Sufism emphasises non quantifiable matters (like
states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises
often used allegorical language which couldn't be read by an
unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened
some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This
usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations
by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts
being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also,
some groups emerged that considered themselves above the
Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the
rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was
disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a
deviant sufi was
Abu Hilman. One of the most vocal critics of such deviations
from the Islamic creed was
Ibn Taymiya.
For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in
traditional Islam, please refer
Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam.
Criticism of Sufism
Sufism has been criticised as being
non
Islamic in nature. The adherents of the
Salafi school form the majority of Muslims opposed to
Tasawwuf. They hold that Sufism was always held to be an
innovation even by the earliest scholars ([4],[5]).
Some of their main criticisms are listed below.
- Sufi masters have introduced many special prayers and
devotional acts into their schools. These are criticised as
being
reprehensible innovations which are at best unnecessary.
The supporters of Sufism defend their position by saying
that innovations can be classified into good and bad ones.
They hold that the textually transmitted prayers and
invocations are superior in all respects to the ones they
institute and that the latter only plays a reinforcing role
rather than a main one ([6],[7]).
- Some point to certain practices like singing being
inconsistent with the Sharia. Sufis defend their position by
quoting prophetic traditions that condone certain forms of
non instrumental music (refer links above).
- The allegorical and often obstruse language used by
Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people
opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of
divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider
equivalent to pantheism and therefore incompatible with
Islam([8]).
Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution
aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves.
They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to
a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its
delicate nature.
[9].
Islamic positions on non Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title Sufi by many groups to refer to
themselves and their use of traditional Sufi masters (notably
Jalaluddin Rumi) as sources of inspiration as well as the
existence of interpretations of classical Sufis texts by people
who have no grounding in traditional Islamic sciences has
created a group of non-Islamic Sufis. These are considered by
traditional Islamic scholars as beyond the pale of the religion
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